Trends of in-hospital cardiac arrests in a single tertiary hospital with a mature rapid response system.

BACKGROUND: Most studies on rapid response system (RRS) have simply focused on its role and effectiveness in reducing in-hospital cardiac arrests (IHCAs) or hospital mortality, regardless of the predictability of IHCA. This study aimed to identify the characteristics of IHCAs including predictability of the IHCAs as our RRS matures for 10 years, to determine the best measure for RRS evaluation. METHODS: Data on all consecutive adult patients who experienced IHCA and received cardiopulmonary resuscitation in general wards between January 2010 and December 2019 were reviewed. IHCAs were classified into three groups: preventable IHCA (P-IHCA), non-preventable IHCA (NP-IHCA), and inevitable IHCA (I-IHCA). The annual changes of three groups of IHCAs were analyzed with Poisson regression models. RESULTS: Of a total of 800 IHCA patients, 149 (18.6%) had P-IHCA, 465 (58.1%) had NP-IHCA, and 186 (23.2%) had I-IHCA. The number of the RRS activations increased significantly from 1,164 in 2010 to 1,560 in 2019 (P = 0.009), and in-hospital mortality rate was significantly decreased from 9.20/1,000 patients in 2010 to 7.23/1000 patients in 2019 (P = 0.009). The trend for the overall IHCA rate was stable, from 0.77/1,000 patients in 2010 to 1.06/1,000 patients in 2019 (P = 0.929). However, while the incidence of NP-IHCA (P = 0.927) and I-IHCA (P = 0.421) was relatively unchanged over time, the incidence of P-IHCA decreased from 0.19/1,000 patients in 2010 to 0.12/1,000 patients in 2019 (P = 0.025). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of P-IHCA could be a quality metric to measure the clinical outcomes of RRS implementation and maturation than overall IHCAs.

Relationship between the presence of dedicated doctors in rapid response systems and patient outcome: a multicenter retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Rapid response systems (RRSs) improve patients' safety, but the role of dedicated doctors within these systems remains controversial. We aimed to evaluate patient survival rates and differences in types of interventions performed depending on the presence of dedicated doctors in the RRS. METHODS: Patients managed by the RRSs of 9 centers in South Korea from January 1, 2016, through December 31, 2017, were included retrospectively. We used propensity score-matched analysis to balance patients according to the presence of dedicated doctors in the RRS. The primary outcome was in-hospital survival. The secondary outcomes were the incidence of interventions performed. A sensitivity analysis was performed with the subgroup of patients diagnosed with sepsis or septic shock. RESULTS: After propensity score matching, 2981 patients were included per group according to the presence of dedicated doctors in the RRS. The presence of the dedicated doctors was not associated with patients' overall likelihood of survival (hazard ratio for death 1.05, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.93‒1.20). Interventions, such as arterial line insertion (odds ratio [OR] 25.33, 95% CI 15.12‒42.44) and kidney replacement therapy (OR 10.77, 95% CI 6.10‒19.01), were more commonly performed for patients detected using RRS with dedicated doctors. The presence of dedicated doctors in the RRS was associated with better survival of patients with sepsis or septic shock (hazard ratio for death 0.62, 95% CI 0.39‒0.98) and lower intensive care unit admission rates (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.37‒0.75). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of dedicated doctors within the RRS was not associated with better survival in the overall population but with better survival and lower intensive care unit admission rates for patients with sepsis or septic shock.

Update on early warning scores.

Early warning scores (EWS) have the objective to provide a preventive approach for detecting those patients in general wards at risk of deterioration before it begins. Well implemented and combined with a tiered response, the EWS expect to be a relevant tool for patient safety. Most of the evidence for their use has been published for the general EWS. Their strengths, such as objectivity and systematic response, health provider training, universal applicability and automatization potential need to be highlighted to counterbalance the weakness and limitations that have also been described. The near future will probably increase availability of EWS, reliability and predictive value through the spread and acceptability of continuous monitoring in general ward, its integration in decision support algorithms with automatic alerts and the elaboration of temporal vital signs patterns that will finally allow to perform a personal modelling depending on individual patient characteristics.

Características epidemiológicas de los pacientes atendidos en el sector de reanimación de un servicio de emergencia en un hospital de tercer nivel de Argentina / Epidemiological features of patients admitted to the resuscitation unit at an emergency department of a third level hospital in Argentina

Introducción. Conocer las características epidemiológicas (CE) de una población resulta primordial para la definición de estrategias sanitarias. Nuestro objetivo es describir las características de pacientes críticos ingresados al sector reanimación (SR). Materiales y métodos. Estudio descriptivo y retrospectivo realizado en un servicio de urgencias de un hospital de tercer nivel entre 2/7/2018 y 1/7/2019. Se incluyeron todos los pacientes ingresados a SR. Se registró edad, sexo, motivo de ingreso, condición crónica, procedimientos diagnósticos y terapéuticos efectuados. Los datos fueron obtenidos del libro de registro y la historia clínica informatizada, y analizados con software Redcap Versión 8.9.2. Las variables categóricas se expresaron como frecuencias y porcentajes y las continuas con mediana y rango intercuartílico. Resultados. Ingresaron 2292 pacientes. El 94% fueron menores de 16 años. El 56,5% presentaba condiciones crónicas (CC), siendo más frecuentes las enfermedades neurológicas (29%), endocrino/metabólicas (15,5%) y cardiovasculares (11%). Los motivos de ingreso más habituales: enfermedad respiratoria aguda baja (31%), estado epiléptico (13%), sepsis (13%) y deshidratación grave (7%). Estudios complementarios más utilizados: laboratorio (54%), radiografía (28%), hemocultivos (23%). Los procedimientos realizados con más frecuencia fueron la colocación de acceso venoso periférico (67%), cánula nasal de alto flujo (6%) y ventilación mecánica (5%). Las drogas más indicadas: oxígeno (42%), fluidos (34%), antibióticos (22%). El 14% ingresó a cuidados intensivos. Hubo 11 paros cardiorrespiratorios y 6 óbitos. Conclusiones. En el SR se asisten pacientes críticos con patologías de alta prevalencia como también pacientes con enfermedades crónicas complejas. La evaluación periódica de CE resulta una herramienta fundamental para detectar dificultades y elaborar estrategias de mejora (AU)

Introduction. Knowledge on the epidemiological characteristics (EC) of a population is essential to define healthcare strategies. Our aim was to describe the characteristics of critical patients admitted to the resuscitation unit (RU). Materials and methods. A descriptive and retrospective study was conducted at an emergency department of a third-level hospital between 2/7/2018 and 1/7/2019. All patients admitted to the RU were included. Age, sex, reason for admission, underlying disease, and diagnostic and therapeutic procedures performed were recorded. The data were obtained from the logbook and electronic records, and analyzed using Redcap software Version 8.9.2. Categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and percentages and continuous variables as median and interquartile range. Results. 2292 patients were admitted; 94% were younger than 16 years of age. Overall, 56.5% had underlying diseases (UD), the most common of which were neurological (29%), endocrine/metabolic (15.5%), and cardiovascular (11%) disorders. The most common reasons for admission were acute lower respiratory tract disease (31%), status epilepticus (13%), sepsis (13%), and severe dehydration (7%). The most frequently used complementary studies were laboratory tests (54%), x-rays (28%), and hemocultures (23%). The most frequently performed procedures were peripheral venous line (67%), high-flow nasal cannula (6%), and mechanical ventilation (5%) placement. The most frequently indicated medications were oxygen (42%), fluids (34%), and antibiotics (22%). Overall, 14% required admission to the intensive care unit. There were 11 cardiorespiratory arrests and six deaths. Conclusions. Critical patients with highly prevalent diseases as well as patients with complex underlying diseases are seen at the RU. Periodic EC evaluation is a key tool for detecting difficulties and developing improvement strategies (AU)

An International Report on the Adaptations of Rapid Transient Ischaemic Attack Pathways During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: This report aims to describe changes that centres providing transient ischaemic attack (TIA) pathway services have made to stay operational in response to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. METHODS: An international cross-sectional description of the adaptions of TIA pathways between 30th March and 6th May 2020. Experience was reported from 18 centres with rapid TIA pathways in seven countries (Australia, France, UK, Canada, USA, New Zealand, Italy, Canada) from three continents. RESULTS: All pathways remained active (n = 18). Sixteen (89%) had TIA clinics. Six of these clinics (38%) continued to provide in-person assessment while the majority (63%) used telehealth exclusively. Of these, three reported PPE use and three did not. Five centres with clinics (31%) had adopted a different vascular imaging strategy. CONCLUSION: The COVID pandemic has led TIA clinics around the world to adapt and move to the use of telemedicine for outpatient clinic review and modified investigation pathways. Despite the pandemic, all have remained operational.

Nurses' ability to timely activate rapid response systems for deteriorating patients: A comparative case scenario study between Finnish and British nurses.

BACKGROUND: Failure or delay in using rapid response system is associated with adverse patient outcomes. OBJECTIVES: To assess nurses' ability to timely activate the rapid response system in case scenarios and to assess nurses' perceptions of the rapid response system. METHODOLOGY/DESIGN: A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted using a modified rapid response team survey. SETTINGS: A sample of medical/surgical registered nurses were recruited from one acute tertiary care hospital in Finland and one National Health Service acute care hospital in United Kingdom (N = 180; UK: n = 86; Finland: n = 94). RESULTS: The results demonstrated that in half of the case scenarios, nurses failed to activate the rapid response system on time, with no significant difference between countries. Nurses did not perceive doctor's disagreement with activation of the rapid response system to be a strong barrier for activating the rapid response system. Finnish nurses found doctor's disagreement in activating the rapid response system less important compared to British nurses. CONCLUSIONS: The study identified gaps in nurses' knowledge in management of deteriorating patients. Nurses' management of the case scenarios was suboptimal. The findings suggest that nurses need education for timely activation of the rapid response system. Case scenarios could be beneficial for nurses' training.

The impact of rapid response systems on mortality and cardiac arrests - A literature review.

BACKGROUND: Rapid response systems were created to improve recognition of and response to deterioration of general ward patients. AIM: This literature review aimed to evaluate the evidence on whether rapid response systems decrease in-hospital mortality and non-intensive care unit cardiac arrests. METHOD: Six databases (MEDLINE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature, SCOPUS, Web of Science and PubMed) were systematically searched for primary studies published between 1st January 2014 and 31st October 2017, recruiting general ward patients, where the intervention involved introducing/maintaining a rapid response system, the comparison referred to a hospital setting without a rapid response system and the outcomes included mortality and cardiac arrests. RESULTS: Fifteen studies met eligibility criteria: one stepped wedge cluster randomised controlled trial, one concurrent cohort controlled study and thirteen historically controlled studies. Thirteen studies investigated mortality of which seven reported statistically significant findings in favour of rapid response systems. Thirteen studies investigated cardiac arrests, of which eight reported statistically significant findings in favour of rapid response systems. CONCLUSION: Evidence suggests that when the process of introducing/maintaining a rapid response system is successful and under certain favourable conditions, rapid response systems significantly decrease mortality and cardiac arrests.

¿Puedes aportar valor más allá de la UCI? El reto de la enfermería en los Sistemas de Respuesta Rápida / Can you add value beyond the ICU? The nursing challenge in systems of Rapid Response

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The rapid response system: an integrative review.

Background: Clinical deterioration and adverse events in hospitals is an increasing cause for concern. Rapid response systems have been widely implemented to identify deteriorating patients. Aim: We aimed to examine the literature highlighting major historical trends leading to the widespread adoption of rapid response systems, focussing on Australian issues and identifying future focus areas. Method: Integrative literature review including published and grey literature. Results: Seventy-eight sources including journal articles and Australian government matierlas resulted. Pertinent themes were the increasing acuity and aging of the population, importance of hospital cultures, the emerging role of the consumer, and proliferation, evolution and standardisation of rapid response systems. Discussion: Translating evidence to usual care practice is challenging and strongly driven by local factors and political imperatives. Conclusion: Rapid response systems are complex interventions requiring consideration of contextual factors at all levels. Appropriate resources, a skilled workforce and positive workplace cultures are needed for these systems to reach their full potential.

Reasons for Repeat Rapid Response Team Calls, and Associations with In-Hospital Mortality.

BACKGROUND: Previous publications noted increased mortality risk in patients subject to repeat rapid response team (RRT) calls. These patients were examined as a homogenous group, but there may be many reasons for repeat calls. Those potentially preventable by the rapid response system have not been investigated. METHODS: In a retrospective cohort study, patients with potentially preventable repeat calls were classified into two categories: type 1 (patients who had a repeat call following an initial call that ended despite the patient still triggering RRT calling criteria [T1-PRC]) and type 2 (patients with a repeat call within 24 hours of an initial call and for the same reason [T2-PRC]). In-hospital mortality for these patients and for those with repeat calls for all other reasons (ORC) were compared to patients with only a single call during their admission (SC). RESULTS: Mortality occurred in 31 (43.7%) T1-PRC, 13 (15.1%) T2-PRC, 56 (28.9%) ORC, and 289 (13.9%) SC patients. Univariate odds ratios (ORs), in comparison to SC patients, were 4.81 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.96-7.81; p < 0.001), 1.10 (95% CI: 0.60-2.02; p = 0.75), and 2.52 (95% CI: 1.80-3.52; p < 0.001), respectively. Mortality effects persisted for the T1-PRC and ORC groups after adjustment for patient, admission, and initial call characteristics with ORs of 4.07 (95% CI: 2.36-7.01; p < 0.001) and 2.29 (95% CI: 1.57-3.34; p < 0.001), respectively. CONCLUSION: This study found that repeat calls following an initial call that ended with ongoing breach of predefined calling criteria were strongly associated with increased mortality. This highlights the risk to patients when the RRT leaves reversible clinical deterioration unresolved at the end of a call.

Role of the anesthesiologist-intensivist outside the ICU: opportunity to add value for the hospital or an unnecessary distraction?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Given the extremely expensive nature of critical care medicine, it seems logical that intensivists should play an active role in designing efficient systems of care. The true value of intensivists, however, is not well defined. RECENT FINDINGS: Anesthesiologists have taken key roles in improving patient safety in the operating room. Anesthesia-related mortality rates have decreased from 20 deaths per 100 000 anesthetics in the early 1980s to less than one death per 100 000 currently. Anesthesiologist-intensivists remain rare (less than 5% of certified anesthesiologists), but increasingly play multiple roles within multidisciplinary teams. This review outlines the roles of intensivists in performance improvement, perioperative assessment; sedation services, extracorporeal and mechanical support, and code/rapid response teams. Critical-care physicians, by definition, work in collaborative multispecialty and multidisciplinary teams that make it difficult to isolate each team member's precise contribution to healthcare value. SUMMARY: Anesthesiologist-intensivists working outside their usual environment provide leadership and clinical guidance towards improving patient outcomes.

Association of Pediatric Medical Emergency Teams With Hospital Mortality.

BACKGROUND: Implementation of medical emergency teams has been identified as a potential strategy to reduce hospital deaths, because these teams respond to patients with acute physiological decline in an effort to prevent in-hospital cardiac arrest. However, prior studies of the association between medical emergency teams and hospital mortality have been limited and typically have not accounted for preimplementation mortality trends. METHODS: Within the Pediatric Health Information System for freestanding pediatric hospitals, annual risk-adjusted mortality rates were calculated for sites between 2000 and 2015. A random slopes interrupted time series analysis then examined whether implementation of a medical emergency team was associated with lower-than-expected mortality rates based on preimplementation trends. RESULTS: Across 38 pediatric hospitals, mean annual hospital admission volume was 15 854 (range, 6684-33 024), and there were a total of 1 659 059 hospitalizations preimplementation and 4 392 392 hospitalizations postimplementation. Before medical emergency team implementation, hospital mortality decreased by 6.0% annually (odds ratio [OR], 0.94; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.92-0.96) across all hospitals. After medical emergency team implementation, hospital mortality continued to decrease by 6% annually (OR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.93-0.95), with no deepening of the mortality slope (ie, not lower OR) in comparison with the preimplementation trend, for the overall cohort (P=0.98) or when analyzed separately within each of the 38 study hospitals. Five years after medical emergency team implementation across study sites, there was no difference between predicted (hospital mean of 6.18 deaths per 1000 admissions based on preimplementation trends) and actual mortality rates (hospital mean of 6.48 deaths per 1000 admissions; P=0.57). CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of medical emergency teams in a large sample of pediatric hospitals in the United States was not associated with a reduction in hospital mortality beyond existing preimplementation trends.

Systems for recognition and response to clinical deterioration in Victorian emergency departments.

BACKGROUND: The study aim was to explore the systems for recognising and responding to clinical deterioration in adult and paediatric Victorian emergency department (ED) patients after their initial triage assessment. METHODS: A survey of Victorian EDs was conducted. Senior ED nursing staff was asked about ED characteristics, vital sign documentation, systems for recognising and responding to deteriorating ED patients, quality assurance and governance of ED rapid response systems (RRSs). RESULTS: Sixteen EDs participated (17 metropolitan and 13 regional or rural) giving a response rate of 53.3% (16/30). The organisational definition of a deteriorating patient applied to the ED at 50% of sites (n=8). Vital sign documentation was paper-based (43.6%), electronic (37.6%) or a combination (18.8%) of both. The majority of EDs (87.5%, n=14) had an ED RRS; 50% had one tier, single trigger RRS and 31.3% of EDs had a two tier, single trigger RRS. At 68.8% of sites the ED RRS activation criteria were the same as ward MET (medical emergency team) activation criteria. The most common method of escalation of care for deteriorating ED patients were face-to-face communication (87.5%) and overhead announcements within the ED (68.8%). The ED rapid response team (RRT) was composed of ED specific staff in 50.5% of sites, and staff external to the ED at 12.5% of sites. Two thirds of sites (68.7%) collected data about clinical deterioration in ED patients. CONCLUSIONS: Most EDs had an RRS but there was variability in activation criteria and members of the responding team both between EDs, and between ED and the ward RRSs.

Effect of an automated notification system for deteriorating ward patients on clinical outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Delayed response to clinical deterioration of ward patients is common. METHODS: We performed a prospective before-and-after study in all patients admitted to two clinical ward areas in a district general hospital in the UK. We examined the effect on clinical outcomes of deploying an electronic automated advisory vital signs monitoring and notification system, which relayed abnormal vital signs to a rapid response team (RRT). RESULTS: We studied 2139 patients before (control) and 2263 after the intervention. During the intervention the number of RRT notifications increased from 405 to 524 (p = 0.001) with more notifications triggering fluid therapy, bronchodilators and antibiotics. Moreover, despite an increase in the number of patients with "do not attempt resuscitation" orders (from 99 to 135; p = 0.047), mortality decreased from 173 to 147 (p = 0.042) patients and cardiac arrests decreased from 14 to 2 events (p = 0.002). Finally, the severity of illness in patients admitted to the ICU was reduced (mean Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score: 26 (SD 9) vs. 18 (SD 8)), as was their mortality (from 45% to 24%; p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Deployment of an electronic automated advisory vital signs monitoring and notification system to signal clinical deterioration in ward patients was associated with significant improvements in key patient-centered clinical outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01692847 . Registered on 21 September 2012.

Mínimo flujo de oxígeno necesario para soporte vital durante la simulación de reanimación post parada cardiorrespiratoria / Minimum oxygen flow needed for vital support during simulated post-cardiorespiratory arrest resuscitation

De acuerdo con las guías de la AHA y la ERC, la FiO2 a administrarse debería ser aquella con la que se obtuviera una SatO2 ≥ 94%. El objetivo de este estudio es determinar el mínimo flujo de oxígeno y tiempo necesarios para alcanzar una FiO2 de 0,32 y de 0,80 durante el manejo posparada cardiaca. Se emplearon diferentes reanimadores, que fueron conectados a un pulmón artificial: Mark IV, SPUR II, Revivator Res-Q, O-TWO. Los flujos de oxígeno probados fueron 2, 5, 10 y 15 lpm. Los test estadísticos aplicados fueron Bonferroni y U de Mann-Whitney. Se obtuvo una FiO2 ≥ 0,32 con cualquiera de los flujos de oxígeno y reanimadores. Tras un mínimo de 75 s ventilando con 2 o 5 lpm, solo se consiguió una FiO2 de 0,80 con Mark IV. Se hallaron diferencias clínica y estadísticamente significativas (p < 0,05): con 15 lpm se necesitaron 35 s para alcanzar una FiO2 ≥ 0,80 con Mark IV (85,6 [0,3]) y Revivator (84,3 [1,5]) comparado con los 50 s que precisó SPUR II (87,1 [6,4]); con 2 lpm, todos los resucitadores alcanzaron una FiO2 ≥ 0,32 en 30 s(Mark IV (34,8 [1,3]), Revivator (35,7 [1,5]) y SPUR II (34,4 [2,1]), excepto O-TWO, que necesitó 35 s (36,3 [4,3]). Para alcanzar una FiO2 de 0,32 se podría emplear cualquiera de los resucitadores usando 2 lpm, aunque quizá el menos recomendable sería O-TWO. Si el objetivo fuera una FiO2 de 0,80, debería bastar con 10 lpm, usando preferiblemente Mark IV o Revivator Res-Q. En conclusión, atendiendo a los resultados de nuestro estudio, ante cualquier situación potencial, sería preferible emplear Revivator Res-Q o Mark IV que O-TWO o SPUR II (AU)

According to the ERC and the AHA guidelines, FiO2 should be titrated to achieve an O2Sat ≥ 94%. The aim of this study was to determine the minimum oxygen flow and time needed to reach an FiO2 of 0.32 and 0.80 during post-cardiac arrest care. An experimental analysis was performed that consisted of a simulated post-cardiac arrest situation. Different resuscitators were tested and connected to an artificial lung: Mark IV, SPUR II, Revivator Res-Q, O-TWO. The oxygen flow levels tested were 2, 5, 10 and 15 lpm. Bonferroni and Mann-Whitney U tests were used. An FiO2 of 0.32 or more was obtained using any of the oxygen flow and resuscitators. Only the Mark IV achieved an FiO2 of 0.80 after a minimum of 75 s ventilating with 2 or 5 lpm. Clinical and statistical differences (P < .05) were found: at 15 lpm it took 35 s to reach an FiO2 of 0.80 or more for Mark IV (85.6 [0.3]) and Revivator (84.3 [1.5]) compared to 50 s for SPUR II (87.1 [6.4]); at 2 lpm, all of the devices reached an FiO2 of ≥ 0.32 at 30 s(Mark IV (34.8 [1.3]), Revivator (35.7 [1.5]) and SPUR II (34.4 [2.1]), except for O-TWO, which took 35 s (36.3 [4.3]). Patients could be ventilated with any of the resuscitators using 2 lpm to obtain an FiO2 of 0.32, although possibly O-TWO would be the last option during the first 60 s. In order to reach an FiO2 of 0.80, ventilating with 10 lpm should be sufficient, and preferably using Mark IV or Revivator Res-Q. In conclusion, on observing the results of our study, in any possible scenario, it would be advisable to use Revivator Res-Q or Mark IV rather than O-TWO or SPUR II (AU)

Epidemiology of in-hospital mortality in acute patients admitted to a tertiary-level hospital.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare professionals may have difficulty in recognising the dying patient in acute care settings, and yet, this is essential if timely end-of-life care is to be provided. While approximately one-third of patients who pass away in-hospital are reviewed by the rapid response team (RRT), there is limited available research on other factors associated with mortality within the hospital setting. AIMS: To describe the epidemiology of in-hospital mortality within a tertiary-level hospital, particularly in the context of RRT activation. METHODS: We utilised the database extraction of demographic, admission and RRT activation data on acute patients discharged from an Australian acute tertiary hospital between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2013. Analyses included simple descriptors, Chi-squared and non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis tests as appropriate. RESULTS: Of the 44,297 patients discharged from our hospital, 1603 died during admission. The general medical, haematology/oncology and intensive care teams provided care for the majority of the patients who died. A small number of diagnoses had in-patient mortality rates of greater than 25%. These included respiratory failure, alcoholic liver disease, vascular disorders of the intestine, sepsis and aspiration pneumonia. Over 75% of patients who received a RRT call survived to hospital discharge; however, patients who received four or more RRT calls during admission had an in-hospital mortality rate of over 40%. CONCLUSION: Acute in-patient mortality is unequally distributed throughout the hospital, and a small number of diagnoses has large associated in-patient mortality rates. Repeated involvement of the RRT is associated with in-patient mortality.